A course in disaster mitigation

Authors

  • Sarah J. Bundy, PhD

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.2016.0272

Keywords:

disaster mitigation, emergency management education, curriculum development

Abstract

While endeavors are underway within the emergency management discipline to develop a unique body of foundational knowledge, widespread acknowledgement and agreement within the emergency management scholarly community of the existence of theoretical foundations and the consistent incorporation of these elements into emergency management research and teaching are still lacking. This article offers an outline of a US-based undergraduate course in mitigation theory and practice that is based on a synthesis of the academic literature related to disaster mitigation as a means to advance the discourse on foundational knowledge and curriculum development. The course outline proposes a set of concepts, theories, propositions, and empirical data that would arguably be fundamental for students in gaining a comprehensive understanding of mitigation in the United States and suggests how that information can be organized and presented in a meaningful way.

Author Biography

Sarah J. Bundy, PhD

Assistant Professor, Dept. 2351, North Dakota State University, North Dakota

References

Alexander D: Natural disasters: A framework for teaching and research. Disasters. 1991; 15(3): 209-226.

Jensen JL: An argument in favor of a disciplinary approach to emergency management in higher education. In Hubbard J (ed.): Challenges of Emergency Management in Higher Education. Fairfax, VA: Public Entity Risk Institute, 2011.

McEntire DA, Marshall M: Epistemological problems in emergency management: Theoretical dilemmas and implications. ASTEP J. 2003; 10: 119-129.

McEntire DA: The importance of multi- and inter-disciplinary research on disasters and for emergency management. In McEntire DA (ed.): Disciplines, Disasters, and Emergency Management: The Convergence and Divergence of Concepts, Issues, and Trends from the Research Literature. Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute, Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2006: 3-14.

Mileti DS: Disasters by Design. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 1999.

Phillips BD: Disasters by discipline: Necessary dialogue for emergency management education. Paper presented at the “Creating Educational Opportunities for the Hazards Manager of the 21st Century” Workshop, Denver, Colorado, 1993.

Drabek TE: Theories relevant to emergency management versus a theory of emergency management. J Emerg Manag. 2005; 3(4): 44-54.

Jensen JL: Emergency management theory: Unrecognized, underused, and underdeveloped. In Hubbard J (ed.): Integrating Emergency Management into Higher Education: Ideas, Programs, and Strategies. Fairfax, VA: Public Entity Risk Institute, 2010: 7-24.

Klenow DJ: Concepts, frameworks, and theory: Perspectives on the emergence of emergency management based theory. In Hubbard J (ed.): Ideas from an Emerging Field: Teaching Emergency Management in Higher Education. Fairfax, VA: Public Entity Risk Institute, 2009: 93-100.

McEntire DA: Emergency management theory: Issues, barriers, and recommendations for improvement. J Emerg Manag. 2005; 3(3): 44-54.

Perry RW: Disasters, definitions, and theory construction. In Perry RW, Quarantelli EL (eds.): What is a Disaster? New Answers to Old Questions. Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2005: 311-324.

Phillips BD: Disaster as a discipline: The status of emergency management education in the U.S. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 2005; 23(1): 111-140.

Higher Education Program: FEMA Emergency Management Higher Education Program Description: Background, Mission, Current Status, and Future Planning. Emmitsburg, MD: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2014.

Bloom BS: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Company Inc., 1956.

Fink LD: Creating Significant Learning Experiences: An Integrated Approach to Designing College Courses. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013.

Quarantelli EL: Disaster Recovery: Research Based Observations on What It Means, Success and Failure, Those Assisted and Those Assisting. Preliminary Paper #263. Newark, DE: University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1998.

Godschalk DR, Beatley T, Berke PR, et al.: Natural Hazard Mitigation: Recasting Disaster Policy and Planning. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1999.

Godschalk DR: Urban hazard mitigation: Creating resilient cities. Nat Hazards Rev. 2003; 4(3): 136-143.

Schneider RO: Hazard mitigation and sustainable community development. Disaster Prev Manag. 2002; 11(2): 141-147.

Schwab AK, Eschelbach K, Brower DJ: Hazard Mitigation and Preparedness. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.

Robert T: Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act: Public Law 93-288, as amended, 42 USC 5170 (1988).

Sylves R: Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management and Homeland Security. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2008.

Waugh WL, Tierney KJ: Emergency Management: Principles and Practice for Local Government. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: ICMA Press, 2007.

Lindell MK, Prater CS, Perry RW: Introduction to Emergency Management. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pathways, 2006.

National Research Council: Facing Hazards and Disasters: Understanding Human Dimensions. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2006.

Chester DK: Theology and disaster studies: The need for dialogue. J Volcanol Geotherm Res. 2005; 146(4): 319-328.

Alexander D: Natural Disasters. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993.

Furedi F: The changing meaning of disaster. Area. 2007; 39(4): 482-489.

Rubin C: Emergency Management: The American Experience 1900–2005. Fairfax, VA: Public Entity Risk Institute, 2007.

Tierney KJ, Lindell MK, Perry RW: Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United States. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 2001.

Platt RH: Disasters and Democracy: The Politics of Extreme Natural Events. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999.

Platt RH: Planning and land-use adjustments in historical perspective. In Burby RJ (ed.): Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Communities. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 1998: 29-56.

Britton NR: Whither the emergency manager? Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1999; 17(2): 223-235.

National Governor's Association (NGA): Comprehensive Emergency Management: A Governor's Guide. Washington, DC: NGA, 1979.

Neal DM: Reconsidering the phases of disaster. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1997; 15(2): 239-264.

Quarantelli EL: Preparedness and Disasters: A Very Complex Relationship. Preliminary Paper #209. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Disaster Research Center, 1994.

Spittal MJ, McClure J, Siegert RJ, et al.: Predictors of two types of earthquake preparation: Survival activities and mitigation activities. Environ Behav. 2008; 40(6): 798-817.

Tierney KJ: Socio-Economic Aspects of Hazard Mitigation. Preliminary Paper #190. Newark, DE: University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1993.

Birkland TA: Focusing events, mobilization, and agenda setting. J Public Policy. 1998; 18(1): 53-74.

Prater CS, Lindell MK: Politics of hazard mitigation. Nat Hazards Rev. 2000; 1(2): 73-82.

Passerini E: Disasters as agents of change in recovery and reconstruction. Nat Hazards Rev. 2000; 1(2): 67-72.

Weichselgartner J: 2001. Disaster mitigation: The concept of vulnerability revisited. Disaster Prev Manag. 2001; 10(2): 85-95.

Wisner B, Blaikie P, Cannon T, et al.: At Risk: Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability and Disasters. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2003.

Yodmani S: Disaster Risk Management and Vulnerability Reduction: Protecting the Poor. Paper presented at The Asia and Pacific Forum on Poverty, Manila, 2001.

Geis DE: By design: The disaster-resistant and quality-of-life community. Nat Hazards Rev. 2000; 1(3): 151-160.

Aguirre BE: On the Concept of Resilience. Preliminary Paper #356. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Disaster Research Center, 2006.

Cutter SL, Barnes L, Berry M, et al.: A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Glob Environ Change. 2008; 18: 598-606.

Olshansky RB, Kartez JD: Managing land-use to build resilience. In Burby RJ (ed.): Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Communities. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 1998: 167-2002.

Petak WJ: Earthquake resilience through mitigation: A system approach. Paper presented at The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, 2002.

Schwab AK, Brower DJ: Increasing resilience to natural hazards: Obstacles and opportunities for local governments under the disaster mitigation act of 2000. ELR News Anal. 2008; 38(3): 10171-10186.

Beatley T: Promoting sustainable land use: Mitigating natural hazards through land use planning. In Natural Disasters: Local and Global Perspectives. Boston, MA: Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction, 1994: 31-36.

Beatley T: The vision of sustainable communities. In Burby RJ (ed.): Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Communities. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 1998: 232-262.

Burby RJ (ed.): Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Communities. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 1998.

Lindsay JR: The determinants of disaster vulnerability: Achieving sustainable mitigation through population health. Nat Hazards. 2003; 28: 291-304.

Mandarano L: Sustainable land-use planning: Revitalising a flood prone office park. J Environ Plan Manag. 2010; 53(2): 183-196.

Mitchell JK: Coping with natural hazards and disasters in megacities: Perspectives on the twenty-first century. GeoJournal. 1995; 37(3): 303-311.

Munasinghe M, Clark C: Disaster Prevention for Sustainable Development. A Report from the Yokohama World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction. May 23-27, 1994.

Pearce L: Disaster management and community planning, and public participation: How to achieve sustainable hazard mitigation. Nat Hazards. 2003; 28(2-3): 211-228.

Salkin PE: Sustainability at the edge: The opportunity and responsibility of local governments to most effectively plan for natural disaster mitigation. ELR News Anal. 2008; 38(3): 10158-10170.

Schwab AK, Brower DJ: Sustainable Development and Natural Hazards Mitigation. Raleigh, NC: The Mitigation Planning Initiative Group, 1999.

Cutter SL: Vulnerability to environmental hazards. Prog Hum Geogr. 1996; 20(4): 529-539.

Goldstein BE, Goldstein B: The futility of reason: Incommensurable differences between sustainability narratives in the aftermath of the 2003 San Diego Cedar Fire. J Environ Policy Plan. 2007; 9(3-4): 227-244.

Klein RJ, Nicholls RJ, Thomalla F: Resilience to natural hazards: How useful is this concept? Environ Hazards. 2003; 5: 35-45.

Manyena SB: The concept of resilience revisited. Disasters. 2006; 30(4): 433-450.

Norris FH, Stevens SP, Pfefferbaum B, et al.: Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. Am J Community Psychol. 2008; 41: 127-150.

Rose A: Defining and measuring economic resilience to disasters. Disaster Prev Manag. 2004; 13(4): 307-314.

Sommers S: Measuring resilience potential: An adaptive strategy for organizational crisis planning. J Crisis Contingency Manag. 2009; 17(1): 11-23.

Etkin D: Risk transference and related trends: Driving forces towards more mega-disasters. Glob Environ Change B: Environ Hazards. 1999; 1: 69-75.

Tobin GA: Sustainability and community resilience: The holy grail of hazards planning? Environ Hazards. 1999; 1: 13-25.

Canton L: Emergency Management: Strategies and Concepts for Effective Programs. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.

Lindell MK: Perceived characteristics of environmental hazards. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1994; 12: 303-326.

Mileti DS, Darlington JD: Societal response to revised earthquake probabilities in the San Francisco bay area. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1995; 13(2): 119-145.

Mulilis JP, Lippa RA: Behavioral changes in earthquake preparedness due to negative threat appeals: A test of protection motivation theory. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1990; 20: 619-638.

Russell LA, Goltz JD, Bourque LB: Preparedness and hazard mitigation activities before and after two earthquakes. Environ Behav. 1995; 27: 744-770.

Turner RH, Nigg JM, Heller-Paz D: Waiting for Disaster: Earthquake Watch in California. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 1986.

Kazmierczak A, Bichard E: Investigating homeowners’ interest in property-level flood protection. Int J Disaster Resilience Built Environ. 2010; 1(2): 157-172.

Kunreuther H: Disaster mitigation and insurance: Learning from Katrina. Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci. 2006; 604: 208-227.

Laska SB, Wetmore F: Floodproof Retrofitting: Homeowner Self-Protective Behavior. Program on Environment and Behavior Monograph #49. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science University of Colorado, 1989.

Laska SB: Homeowner adaptation to flooding: An application of the general hazards coping theory. Environ Behav. 1990; 22(3): 320-357.

Laska SB: Involving homeowners in flood mitigation. J Am Plan Assoc. 1986; 52(4): 452-466.

Grothmann T, Reusswig F: People at risk of flooding: Why some residents take precautionary action while others do not. Nat Hazards. 2006; 38: 101-120.

Work PA, Rogers SM: Flood retrofit of coastal residential structures: Outer Banks, North Carolina. J Water Resour Plan Manag. 1999; 125(2): 88-94.

Zevenbergen C, Gersonius B, Puyan N, et al.: Economic feasibility study of flood proofing domestic dwellings. In Ashley R, Garvin S, Pasche E, Vassilopoulos A, Zevenbergen C (eds.): Advances in Urban Flood Management. London: Taylor and Francis, 2007: 299-320.

Burby RJ, Bollens SA, Holloway JM, et al.: Cities Under Water: A Comparative Evaluation of Ten Cities' Efforts to Manage Floodplain Use. Program on Environment and Behavior Monograph #47. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science University of Colorado, 1998.

Burrus RT, Dumas CF, Graham JE: Hurricane risk and coastal property owner choices. Int J Disaster Resilience Built Environ. 2011; 2(2): 118-138.

Kunreuther H, Kleffner AE: Should earthquake mitigation measures be voluntary or required? J Regul Econ. 1992; 4: 321-333.

Palm RI, Hodgson ME, Blanchard RD, et al.: Earthquake Insurance in California: Environmental Policy and Individual Decision-Making. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990.

Peacock WG: Hurricane mitigation status and factors influencing mitigation status among Florida's single-family homeowners. Nat Hazards Rev. 2003; 4(3): 149-158.

Burby RJ, Steinberg LJ, Basolo V: The tenure trap: The vulnerability of renters to joint natural and technical disasters. Urban Aff Rev. 2003; 39: 32-57.

Collins TW: What influences hazard mitigation? Household decision making about wildfire risks in Arizona's White Mountains. Prof Geogr. 2008; (60)4: 508-526.

Kunreuther H: Reducing losses from catastrophic risk through long-term insurance and mitigation. Soc Res: Int Q. 2008; 75(3): 905-930.

Lindell MK, Prater CS: Household adoption of seismic hazard adjustments: A comparison of residents in two states. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 2000; 18(2): 317-338.

Grothmann T, Patt A: Adaptive capacity and human cognition: The process of individual adaptation to climate change. Glob Environ Change. 2005; 15(3): 199-213.

Burby RJ: Hurricane Katrina and the paradoxes of government disaster policy: Bringing about wise governmental decisions for hazardous areas. Ann Am Acad Polit Soc Sci. 2006; 604: 171-190.

Burby RJ, Beatley T, Berke PE, et al.: Unleashing the power of planning to create disaster-resistant communities. J Am Plan Assoc. 1999; 65(3): 247-258.

Brody SD, Zahran S, Maghelal P, et al.: The rising costs of floods: Examining the impact of planning and development decisions on property damage in Florida. J Am Plan Assoc. 2007; 73(3): 330-345.

Burrus RT, Dumas CF, Graham JE: Catastrophic risk and wealth-maximizing choices for the homeowner. Financ Serv Rev. 2002; 11(4): 327-40.

Ludy J, Kondolf GM: Flood risk perception in lands “protected” by 100-year levees. Nat Hazards. 2012; 61: 829-842.

Lorelli JT: Perceiving flood risk. Water Spectr. 1982; 14: 26-34.

Chang SE, Falit-Baiamonte A: Disaster vulnerability of businesses in the 2001 Nisqually earthquake. Environ Hazards. 2002; 4(2-3): 59-71.

Dahlhamer JM, Tierney KJ: Winners and Losers: Predicting Business Disaster Recovery Outcomes Following the Northridge Earthquake. Preliminary Paper #243. Newark, DE: University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1996.

Green R, Miles S, Gulacsik G, et al.: Business Recovery Related to High-Frequency Natural Hazard Events. Quick Response Report #197. Bellingham, WA: Huxley College of the Environment, Western Washington University, 2008.

Kroll CA, Landis JD, Shen Q, et al.: Economic Impacts of the Loma Prieta Earthquake: A Focus on Small Business. Working Paper No. 91-187. Berkley, CA: University of California Transportation Center and the Center for Real Estate and Economics, 1991.

Wasileski G, Rodriguez H, Diaz W: Business closure and relocation: A comparative analysis of the Loma Prieta earthquake and hurricane Andrew. Disasters. 2011; 35(1): 102-129.

Webb GR, Tierney KJ, Dahlhamer JM: Predicting long-term business recovery from disaster: A comparison of the Loma Prieta earthquake and hurricane Andrew. Environ Hazards. 2002; 4: 45-58.

Webb GR, Tierney KJ, Dahlhamer JM: Businesses and disaster: Empirical patterns and unanswered questions. Nat Hazards Rev. 2000; 1(2): 83-90.

Dahlhamer JM, D’Souza MJ: Determinants of business disaster preparedness in two U.S. metropolitan areas. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1997; 15: 265-281.

Drabek TE: Anticipating organizational evacuations: Disaster planning by managers of tourist-oriented private firms. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1991; 1: 219-245.

Quarantelli EL, Lawrence C, Tierney KJ, et al.: Initial findings from a study of socio-behavioral preparations and planning for acute chemical hazard disasters. J Hazard Mater. 1979; 3: 77-90.

Sadiq A: Digging through disaster rubble in search of the determinants of organizational mitigation and preparedness. Risks Hazards Crisis Public Policy. 2010; 1(2): 33-62.

Chikoto GL, Sadiq A, Fordyce E: Disaster mitigation and preparedness: Comparison of non-profit, public, and private organizations. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Q. 2012; 42(2): 1-20.

May PJ, Deyle RE: Governing land use in hazardous areas with a patchwork system. In Burby RJ (ed.): Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Communities. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 1998: 57-84.

James DL, Korom SF: Lessons from Grand Forks: Planning nonstructural flood control measures. Nat Hazards Rev. 2001; 2(4): 182-192.

Pendall R: Local land-use regulation and the chain of exclusion. J Am Plan Assoc. 2000; 66(2): 125-142.

Fleischmann A: Politics, administration, and local land-use regulation: Analyzing zoning as a policy process. Public Adm Rev. 1989; 49(4): 337-344.

Labadie JR: Problems in emergency management. Environ Manag. 1984; 8(6): 489-494.

Petak WJ: Emergency management: A challenge for public administration. Public Adm Rev. 1985; 45: 3-7.

Wolensky RP, Wolensky KC: Local government's problem with disaster management: A literature review and structural analysis. Policy Stud Rev. 1990; 9(4): 703-725.

Burby RJ, French SP: Coping with floods: The land use management paradox. J Am Plan Assoc. 1981; 47(3): 289-300.

Burby RJ, Deyle RE, Godschalk DR, et al.: Creating hazard resilient communities through land-use planning. Nat Hazards Rev. 2000; 1(2): 99-106.

Berke PR, Beatley T: Planning for Earthquakes: Risk, Politics, and Policy. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1992.

Brody SD, Kang JE, Bernhardt S: Identifying factors influencing flood mitigation at the local level in Texas and Florida: The role of organizational capacity. Nat Hazards. 2010; 52: 167-184.

Reddy SD: Factors influencing the incorporation of hazard mitigation during recovery from disaster. Nat Hazards. 2000; 22(2): 185-201.

Olson RS, Olson RA: The rubble's standing up in Oroville, California: The politics of building safety. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1993; 11(2): 163-188.

Norris-Raynbird C: A mitigation tale of two Texas cities. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 2005; 23(2): 37-73.

May PJ, Birkland TA: Earthquake risk reduction: An examination of local regulatory efforts. Environ Manag. 1994; 11: 923-937.

National Association of Public Administration: Coping with Catastrophe: Building on Emergency Management Systems to Meet People's Needs in Natural and Manmade Disasters. Washington, DC: The Academy, 1993.

May PJ: Analyzing mandate design: State mandates governing hazard-prone areas. Publius. 1994; 24: 1-16.

Godschalk DR, Brower DJ, Beatley T: Catastrophic Coastal Storms: Hazard Mitigation and Development Management. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989.

Kusler JA: Regulating Sensitive Lands. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing, 1980.

Berke PR: Reducing natural hazard risks through state growth management. J Am Plan Assoc. 1998; 64(1): 76-87.

Berke PR, French SP: The influence of state planning mandates on local plan quality. J Plan Educ Res. 1994; 13(4): 237-250.

Burby RJ, Dalton LC: Plans can matter! The role of land use plans and state planning mandates in limiting development. Public Adm Rev. 1994; 54(3): 229-237.

Godschalk DR, Norton R, Richardson C, et al.: Avoiding coastal hazard areas: Best state mitigation practices. Environ Geosci. 2000; 7(1): 13-22.

McCarthy FX, Keegan N: FEMA's Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program: Overviews and Issues. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2009.

Rose A, Porter K, Dash N, et al.: Benefit-cost analysis of FEMA hazard mitigation grants. Nat Hazards Rev. 2007; 8(4): 97-111.

Topping KC: Using National financial incentives to build local resiliency: The U.S. Disaster Mitigation Act. J Disaster Res. 2010; 5(2): 164-171.

Burby RJ, French SP, Nelson AC: Plans, code enforcement, and damage reduction: Evidence from the Northridge earthquake. Earthq Spectra. 1998; 14: 59-74.

Deyle RE, Smith RA: Storm Hazard Mitigation and Post-Storm Redevelopment Policies. Tallahassee, FL: The Florida Planning Laboratory, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State University, 1994.

Mader GG: Enduring land-use planning lessons from the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. Earthq Spectra. 1997; 13(4): 721-737.

Smith RA, Deyle RE, Gallagher A, et al.: The Use and Impact of Local Hazard Mitigation and Post-Storm Redevelopment Plans in the Aftermath of Hurricanes: Lessons Learned from Opal. Tallahassee, FL: The Florida Planning Laboratory, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State University, 1996.

Berke PR, Roenigk DJ, Kaiser EJ, et al.: Enhancing plan quality: Evaluating the role of state planning mandates for natural hazard mitigation. J Environ Plan Manag. 1996; 39: 79-96.

Brody SD: Are we learning to make better plans? A longitudinal analysis of plan quality associated with natural hazards. J Plan Educ Res. 2003; 23: 191-201.

Kang JE, Peacock WG, Husein R: An assessment of coastal zone hazard mitigation plans in Texas. J Disaster Res. 2010; 5(5): 526-534.

Nelson AC, French SP: Plan quality and mitigating damage from natural disasters: A case study of the Northridge earthquake with planning policy considerations. J Am Plan Assoc. 2002; 68(2): 194.

Kartez JD, Lindell MK: Planning for uncertainty: The case of local disaster planning. J Am Plan Assoc. 1987; 53(4): 487-498.

Burby RJ: Making plans that matter: Citizen involvement and government action. J Am Plan Assoc. 2003; 69(1): 33-49.

Cutter SL, Boruff BJ, Shirley WL: Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. Soc Sci Q. 2003; 84(2): 242-261.

Pine, J: Natural Hazards Analysis: Reducing the Impact of Disasters. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2008.

Flax LK, Jackson RW, Stein DN: Community vulnerability assessment tool methodology. Nat Hazards Rev. 2002; 3(4): 163-176.

Kircher CA, Whitman RV, Holmes WT: HAZUS earthquake loss estimation methods. Nat Hazards Rev. 2006; 7(2): 45-59.

Radke J, Cova TJ, Sheridan MF, et al.: Application challenges for geographic information systems: Implications for research, education, and policy for emergency preparedness and response. J Urban Reg Inf Syst Assoc. 2000; 12(2): 51-60.

Schneider PJ, Schauer BA: HAZUS—Its development and its future. Nat Hazards Rev. 2006; 7(2): 40-44.

Laurian L, Day M, Berke P, et al.: Evaluating plan implementation: A conformance-based methodology. J Am Plan Assoc. 2004; 70(4): 471-480.

Talen E: Do plans get implemented? A review of evaluation in planning. J Plan Lit. 1996; 10: 248-259.

Boardman AE, Greenberg DH, Vining AR, et al.: Cost-Benefit Analysis: Concepts and Practice. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006.

Campbell HF, Brown RC: Benefit-Cost Analysis: Financial and Economic Appraisal Using Spreadsheets. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Luft HS: Benefit-cost analysis and public policy implementation: From normative to positive analysis. Public Policy. 1976; 24(4): 437-462.

Murpy C, Gardoni P: Determining public policy and resource allocation priorities for mitigating natural hazards: A capabilities-based approach. Sci Eng Ethics. 2007; 13: 489-504.

Chakos A, Schultz P, Tobin LT: Making it work in Berkeley: Investing in community sustainability. Nat Hazards Rev. 2002; 3(2): 55-67.

Sadowski NC, Sutter D: Mitigation motivated by experience: Prior hurricanes and damages. Ocean Coast Manag. 2008; 51: 303-313.

Multihazard Mitigation Council: Natural Hazard Mitigation Saves: An Independent Study to Assess the Future Savings from Mitigation Activities. Washington, DC: National Institute of Building Sciences, 2005.

Stokey E, Zeckhauser R: A Primer for Policy Analysis. New York: WW Norton, 1978.

Ackerman F, Heinzerling L: Priceless: On Knowing the Price of Everything and the Value of Nothing. New York: New Press, 2003.

Sunstein CR: Cost-benefit analysis and the environment. Ethics. 2005; 115: 351-385.

Anderson E: Values, risks, and market norms. Philos Public Aff. 1988; 17(1): 54-65.

Fischhoff B, Slovic P, Lichtenstein S: Weighing the risks: Risks: Benefits which risks are acceptable? Environ Sci Policy Sustain Dev. 1979; 2(4): 17-38.

May PJ: Social perspectives about earthquake performance: The fallacy of “acceptable risk.” Earthq Spectra. 2001; 17(4): 725-737.

Beatley T: Towards a moral philosophy of natural hazard mitigation. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 1989; 7(1): 5-32.

deVries DH, Fraser JC: Citizenship rights and voluntary decision making in post-disaster U.S. floodplain buyout mitigation programs. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters. 2012; 30(1): 1-33.

Nicholson WC: Emergency planning and potential liabilities for state and local government. State Local Gov Rev. 2007; 39(1): 44-56.

Coppola DP: Introduction to International Disaster Management. 3rd ed. Waltham, MA: Elsevier, Inc., 2015.

El-Masri S, Tipple G: Natural disaster, mitigation and sustainability: The case of developing countries. Int Plan Stud. 2002; 7(2): 157-175.

Godschalk DR, Rose A, Mittler E, et al.: Estimating the value of foresight: Aggregate analysis of natural hazard mitigation benefits and costs. J Environ Plan Manag. 2009; 52(6): 739-756.

Published

01/01/2016

How to Cite

Bundy, PhD, S. J. “A Course in Disaster Mitigation”. Journal of Emergency Management, vol. 14, no. 1, Jan. 2016, pp. 55-69, doi:10.5055/jem.2016.0272.